Antigenic fusion protein carrying gal alpha1,3gal epitopes

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to an antigenic fusionprotein, which carries multiple Galα1,3Gal epitopes. The fusion protein according to the invention may also be comprised of a heavily glycosylated mucin part, which mediates binding to selectins, such as PSGL-1, and a part, which exhibits immunoglobulin properties, such as the Fc part of IgG. The fusionprotein according to the invention is preferably used as an absorber to prevent a hyperacute rejection of a xenotransplant, such as a pig tissue or organ transplanted into a human patient. In addition, the invention relates to a method for the prevention of a hyperacute rejection reaction in a patient who is to receive a xenotransplant.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of Ser. No. 11/153,082, filed Jun.15, 2005, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/194,396, filedDec. 8, 1998, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,943,239, which in turn is anational stage application filed under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of InternationalApplication No. PCT/SE98/00555, filed Mar. 26, 1998 and which claimspriority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 to Swedish Patent Application No. SE9701127-4, filed Mar. 26, 1997. The contents of each of theseapplications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to antigenic fusion proteins carryingmultiple Galα1,3Gal-epitopes for the removal of foreign antibodies, suchas xenoreactive human anti-pig antibodies, by absorption.

BACKGROUND

Many diseases are today curable only by a transplantation of tissue oran organ, such as a kidney or heart. It is sometimes possible to locatea living donor with immunological markers compatible with the transplantrecipient, although organ donation by a living donor involves greatrisks and possible deleterious health effects for the donor. Without anyavailable living donor, the organ must be obtained from a heartbeatinghuman cadaver of high quality and, again, there must be a goodimmunological match between the donor and the recipient. The situationtoday is a steadily increasing demand for human organs suitable fortransplantation and the gap between said demand and the availability oforgans is likely to grow even wider in view of the continuingimprovements made in transplantation procedures and outcome. The mostpromising possible answer to this problem is xenotransplantation, i.e.transplantation of tissue or organs between different species. For humanpatients, the pig is considered the most suitable donor species formedical, practical, ethical and economical reasons.

The main problem in xenografting between discordant species, such as pigto human, is the hyperacute rejection (HAR), which leads to a cessationof the blood flow within minutes following a transplantation. Eventhough other mechanisms of rejection will ensue after HAR, the generalbelief is that if HAR could be prevented, the patient's immune systemmay undergo a process of accommodation, whereafter a conventionalimmunosuppressive regimen could maintain the compatibility of thepatient and the xenograft.

The HAR is caused by preformed, natural antibodies in the receivingspecies reacting with antigens on the endothelium in donor organs, aninteraction which leads to complement and endothelial cell activation,thrombosis, extravasation of white blood cells and, eventually,rejection. Pig antigens reacting with human, natural antibodies haveturned out to be carbohydrates (7-10); the major one being theGal1α1,3Gal epitope which is not expressed in old world monkeys, apesand humans due to an inactivation of the α1,3 galactosyltransferase (GT)(10-12).

Several methods have been proposed for the removal or elimination ofxenoreactive antibodies from the blood of a recipient. Bach et al(Xenotransplantation, Eds: Cooper, D. K. C., et al, Springer Verlag,1991, Chapter 6) proposed the perfusion of the recipients blood throughan organ of the proposed donor species prior to transplantation ofanother, fresh organ, whereby anti-pig antibodies were removed.

Plasmapheresis has also been proposed for a non-specific removal ofnaturally occurring antibodies, whereby the graft survival is prolonged(e.g. Cairns et al, Rydberg et al). However, conventionalplasmapheresis, or plasma exchange, results in loss of blood volume,which in turn may require a volume replacement with pooled preparationsof fresh frozen plasma, human albumin, immunoglobulin etc. In addition,coagulation factors, platelets and antithrombotic factors must also bereplaced. Such a treatment carries not only the risk of virus transfer,such as HIV, but also the risk of an anaphylactic reaction to foreignsubstances. Other negative side effects of plasmapheresis are recipientsensitization and activation of the complement and clotting system.Accordingly, plasmapheresis does not appear to be either practical orsafe.

Other methods for the removal of xenoreactive antibodies involvenon-specific antibody removal. Protein A, a major component of the cellwall of S. aureus, has a high affinity for a portion of the Fc-region ofsub-classes 1, 2 and 4 of immunoglobulin G (IgG1, IgG2, IgG4) and hasbeen used for the non-specific removal of anti-HLA antibodies fromhypersensitized patients in need of kidney transplants. The efficacy ofthe Protein A column treatment after kidney transplantation have beenreported (Dantal J., et al, New England J. Med. 550: 7-14, 1994;Nilsson, I. M. et al, Blood 58: 38-44, 1981; Palmer, A., et al., TheLancet Jan. 7, 1989, pp. 10-12). One essential drawback with the use ofa Protein A column technique in the context of xenotransplantation is,however, the fact that only IgG will be removed. Lately, it has beenshown that the antibodies involved in HAR during a transplantation frompig to human may involve several other immunoglobulin classes. Inaddition, the non-specific antibody removal will cause a generaldeterioration of the patients immune defense, which quite naturally isnot desirable during such a process as a transplantation procedure,where the patient is immunosuppressed.

Leventhal et al (WO 95/31209) propose a method of preventing orameliorating a hyperacute reaction occurring after transplantation of apig organ to a primate recipient, including a human. The method involvespassing the recipients plasma over a column with a coupled protein,which binds to and thereby removes immunoglobulin therefrom. The proteinis selected from a group consisting of Staphylococcus aureus protein A,Streptococcus protein G and anti-human immunoglobulin antibodies. Thismethod suffers from the same drawbacks as depicted above for the proteinA column.

It has been shown (Platt et al, Good et al, Holgersson et al) that pigantigens reacting with human, natural antibodies are carbohydrates, themajor one being the Galα1,3Gal epitope, which is not expressed in oldworld monkeys, apes and humans due to an inactivation of the α1,3galactosyltransferase.

Recently, McKenzie et al showed that COS cells transfected with theα1,3-galactosyltransferase cDNA expressed the Galα1,3Gal-epitope ontheir surfaces and could absorb most of the human anti-pig activity fromhuman serum.

Further, Galα1,3Gal-derivatized columns have been used to specificallyremove anti-pig activity from human serum (22), free Galα1,3Galdisaccharides have been shown to prevent binding of anti-pig antibodiesto porcine cells, including endothelium (23), and so has porcine stomachmucin (24). However, organic synthesis of saccharides is a verylaborious and expensive method, which in addition is rather slow, andaccordingly, has not found any wide spread applicability.

Apart from the HAR, xenografts are still typically rejected within daysin a process that has been termed delayed xenograft rejection (DXR)(29). DXR is characterized by mononuclear cell activation and graftinfiltration, as well as cytokine production (29). The importance of theGalα1,3Gal epitope for these cellular events is not known, althoughhuman anti-Galα1,3Gal antibodies were recently shown to be involved inantibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) of porcine cells (30).

Thus, there is still a need of cheaper and more efficient methods forthe elimination of foreign antibodies, such as pig-antibodies, from theblood from a recipient who is to obtain a xenotransplant. In addition,within the field of xenotransplantation, of methods for the preventionof DXR.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The objective of the present invention is to fulfill the above definedneed. Accordingly, the present invention provides an antigenic fusionprotein, which carries multiple Galα1,3Gal epitopes. In a preferredembodiment, the fusion protein according to the present invention iscomprised of a heavily glycosylated mucin part, which may mediatebinding to the selecting, and a part conferring immunoglobulinproperties. The fusion protein according to the invention carries amultitude of Galα1,3Gal epitopes, that effectively absorbs foreignantibodies, such as anti-pig antibodies, involved in antibody-dependent,complement-mediated killing and ADCC of endothelial cells, such asporcine cells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to an antigenic fusion protein, whichcarries multiple Galα1,3Gal epitopes.

Thus, the antigenic fusion protein according to the present invention iscapable of binding preformed antibodies as well as antibodies producedas a response to a transplanted tissue or organ originating from thespecies in which the Galα1,3epitopes are expressed, said speciespreferably being a species different from the antibody producingspecies. In a preferred embodiment, the antibody producing species is ahuman being producing antibodies against a foreign transplant, e.g. apig organ, in which case the Galα1,3 epitopes are synthesized by a α1,3galactosyltransferase of pig origin. The transplant may be an organ suchas a liver, a kidney, a heart etc., or tissue thereof. Accordingly, inthe most preferred embodiment of the fusion protein according to theinvention, the antigenic fusion protein carries multiple Galα1,3Galepitopes synthesized by a α1,3 galactosyltransferase derived from aporcine species.

Thus, as the fusion protein according to the present invention may beprepared by the culture of genetically manipulated cells, such as COScells, it is both cheaper and easier to produce than the previouslysaccharides produced by organic synthesis. Even though a COS cellexpressing the Galα1,3Gal epitope on its surface has been described(12), the present invention is the first proposal of a recombinantfusion protein, which carries multiple such epitopes. The fusion proteinaccording to the invention can easily be designed to include otherpeptides and parts, which may be advantageous for a particularapplication. Examples of other components of the fusion proteinaccording to the invention will be described more detailed below.

Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the antigenic fusion protein accordingto the invention further comprises a part, which mediates binding toselectin, such as P-selectin. Said part is preferably a highlyglycosylated protein, such as a protein of mucin type. The mucins aredue to their high content of O-linked carbohydrates especiallyadvantageous together with the Galα1,3Gal epitope in the fusion proteinaccording to the invention, as the antigenic properties in the presentcontext thereby are greatly improved. Thus, it has been shown that thebinding of antibodies which are reactive with the Galα1,3Gal epitope iseven more efficient if said epitope is presented by a protein of mucintype, which indicates that the binding in fact may involve more thansaid epitope alone.

In the hitherto most preferred embodiment of the fusion proteinaccording to the invention, the part that mediates binding to selectinis the P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) or an essential partthereof. However, other cell membrane-anchored proteins containingmucin-type domains have been characterized and may be used in the fusionprotein according to the invention as appropriate, such as CD34, CD43,GlyCAM-1, PSGL-1, MAdCAM, CD96, CD45 and RBC glycophorins. In theexperimental part of the present application, an example wherein saidP-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) is derived from HL-60 cells,is shown. Theoretically, the anti-pig antibody repertoire may recognizethe Galα1,3Gal epitope in various structural contexts determined by thecore saccharide presenting the epitope, neighbouring branching points,and the proximity to other sugar residues such as fucose and sialic acid(31-33). If Galα1,3Gal disaccharides or Galα1,3Galβ1,4GlcNActrisaccharides are used as absorbers some specificities of therepertoire might not be efficiently absorbed.

The properties of the part of the fusion protein mediating selectinbinding according to the invention as well as further reasoningconcerning the choice thereof is further discussed below, see thesection “Discussion”.

In an especially advantageous embodiment, the antigenic fusion proteinaccording the present invention further comprises a part which confersimmunoglobulin properties. The immunoglobulin parts are advantageous forthe design of an efficient and simple method of coupling the fusionprotein according to the invention to a solid support to be used forpurifying plasma from a recipient of a xenotransplant from antibodiesagainst said transplant. An immunoglobulin part can also be included inthe fusion protein according to the invention in the preferred case,where the fusion protein is produced in a cell which secretes it,whereafter the immunoglobulin part is used for the purification of saidsecreted fusion protein from the culture.

Thus, according to an advantageous embodiment of the antigenic fusionprotein according to the present invention, the part that confersimmunoglobulin properties is an immunoglobulin or a part thereof, suchas IgG or a part thereof. Preferably, said part that confersimmunoglobulin properties is the Fc part of an immunoglobulin,preferably of IgG, or an essential part thereof. In a particularembodiment of the present invention, said immunoglobulin propertyconferring part is IgG_(2b), preferably the Fc part thereof. In anexample of a fusion protein according to the present invention, saidpart that confers immunoglobulin properties is of non-human origin, andis preferably derived from mouse. However, for certain applications saidpart might more preferably be of human origin.

The fusion protein according to the present invention is preferably arecombinant fusion protein. It may have been produced in a recombinantcell line, preferably an eukaryotic cell line, e.g. a COS cell line,following cotransfection of the cDNA for the mucin/immunoglobulin fusionprotein and the cDNA for the porcine α1,3 galactosyltransferase.

The fusion protein according to the present invention may for example beused as an absorber for elimination of antibodies from blood plasma. Theuse is discussed in more detail below, in the section “Discussion”.

Another aspect of the present invention is cDNA molecule, whichcomprises a cDNA sequence coding for a fusion protein as defined aboveor a derivative or variant thereof.

Yet another aspect of the present invention is a vector, which comprisesthe cDNA molecule as described above together with appropriate controlsequences, such as primers etc. The skilled in the art can easily chooseappropriate elements for this end.

Another aspect of the present invention is a cell line transfected withthe above defined vector. The cell line is preferably eukaryotic, e.g. aCOS cell line. In the preferred embodiment said cells are secreting thefusion protein according to the invention into the culture medium, whichmakes the recovery thereof easier and, accordingly, cheaper thancorresponding methods for synthesis thereof would be.

Another aspect of the invention is an absorber comprised of a fusionprotein according to the present invention coupled to a solid support.The absorber according to the invention is used in a pretransplantextracorporeal immunoabsorption set up to remove anti-pig antibodiesinvolved in antibody dependent, complement- as well as cell-mediatedcytotoxicity of pig endothelial cells.

Finally, a last aspect of the invention is a method of purifying bloodplasma from foreign antibodies, e.g. elimination of anti-pig antibodiesfrom human blood plasma. The method involves withdrawal of plasma from apatient, such as a patient who is to receive a transplant of porcineorigin, bringing said plasma in contact with a fusion protein accordingto the invention to bind anti-pig antibodies thereto, whereby theanti-pig antibodies are eliminated from the plasma, and thereafterreinfusing the plasma into the patient. The method according to theinvention has been shown to be more efficient than the previously knownmethods in the prevention of HAR, possibly thanks to the large amount ofcarbohydrate in the fusion protein. Indeed, it is feasible that thepresent method also contributes in a prevention of delayed xenograftrejection (DXR), as the spectra of antibodies eliminated by the fusionprotein according to the invention presumably is broader than in theprior methods.

EXPERIMENTAL

In the present application, the following abbreviations are used: ADCC,antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; BSA, bovine serum albumin;DXR, delayed xenorejection; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay;FT, fucosyltransferase; Gal, D-galactose; GT, galactosyltransferase;Glc, D-glucose; GlcNAc, D-N-acetylglucosamine; GlyCAM-1,glycosylation-dependent cell adhesion molecule-1; HAR, hyperacuterejection; Ig, immunoglobulin; MAdCAM, mucosal addressin cell adhesionmolecule; PAEC, porcine aortic endothelial cells; PBMC, peripheral bloodmononuclear cells; PSGL-1, P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1; RBC, redblood cell; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis

Materials and Methods

Cell culture. COS-7 m6 cells (35) and the SV40 Large T antigenimmortalized porcine aortic endothelial cell line, PEC-A (36), werepassaged in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM), with 10% fetalbovine serum (FBS) and 25 μg/ml gentamicin sulfate. The humanerythroleukemic cell line, K562, and the Burkitt's lymphoma cell line,Raji, were obtained from ATCC and cultured in HEPES-buffered RPMI 1640with 10% FBS, 100 IU/ml penicillin and 100 μg/ml streptomycin.

Construction of expression vectors. The porcine α1,3 GT (37-39) was PCRamplified off pig spleen cDNA using a forward primer having six codonsof complementarity to the 5′ end of the coding sequence, a Kozaktranslational initiation consensus sequence and a Hind3 restrictionsite, and a reverse primer with six codons of complementarity to the 3′end of the coding sequence, a translational stop and a Not1 restrictionsite. The amplified α1,3GT cDNA was cloned into the polylinker of CDM8using Hind3 and Not1 (35). The P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1(PSGL-1)—a highly glycosylated mucin-type protein mediating binding toP-selectin (40)—coding sequence was obtained by PCR off an HL-60 cDNAlibrary, cloned into CDM8 with Hind3 and Not1, and confirmed by DNAsequencing. The mucin/immunoglobulin expression plasmid was constructedby fusing the PCR-amplified cDNA of the extracellular part of PSGL-1 inframe via a BamH1 site, to the Fc part (hinge, CH2 and CH3) of mouseIgG_(2b) carried as an expression casette in CDM7 (Seed, B. et al,unpublished).

Production and purification of secreted mucin/immunoglobulin chimeras.COS m6 cell were transfected using the DEAE-dextran protocol and 1 μg ofCsCl-gradient purified plasmid DNA per ml transfection cocktail. COScells were transfected at approximately 70% confluency with empty vector(CDM8), the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) plasmid alone or in combination with theα1,3GT encoding plasmid. Transfected cells were trypsinized andtransferred to new flasks the day after transfection. Followingadherence for approximately 12 hrs, the medium was discarded, the cellswashed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and subsequently incubatedanother 7 days in serum-free, AIM-V medium (cat.nr. 12030, Lifetechnologies Inc.). After incubation, supernatants were collected,debris spun down (1400×g, 20 minutes), and NaN₃ added to 0.02%.PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein was purified on goat anti-mouse IgGagarose beads (A-6531, Sigma) by rolling head over tail, over night at4° C. The beads were washed in PBS and subsequently used for SDS-PAGEand Western blot analysis, or for absorption of human AB serum andpurified human immunoglobulins.

Purification of human IgG, IgM and IgA. Human IgG, IgM and IgA werepurified from human AB serum—pooled from more than 20 healthy blooddonors—using goat anti-human IgG (Fc specific; A-3316, Sigma), IgM(μ-chain specific; A-9935, Sigma), and IgA (α-chain specific; A-2691,Sigma) agarose beads. Briefly, 5 ml of slurry (2.5 ml packed beads) werepoured into a column of 10 mm diameter and washed with PBS. Tenmilliliter of human pooled AB serum was applied at 1 ml/minute using aperistaltic pump, washed with several column volumes of PBS, and elutedwith 0.1M glycine, 0.15M NaCl, pH 2.4 using a flow rate of 1 ml/minute.One milliliter fractions were collected in tubes containing 0.7 ml ofneutralizing buffer (0.2M Tris/HCl, pH 9). The absorption at 280 nm wasread spectrophotometrically and tubes containing protein were pooled.dialyzed against 1% PBS, and lyophilized. Lyophilized immunoglobulinswere resuspended in distilled water and the concentrations adjusted to16 mg/ml for IgG, 4 mg/ml for IgA and 2 mg/ml for IgM.

SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. SDS-PAGE was run by the method of Leammliwith a 5% stacking gel and a 6 or 10% resolving gel using a verticalMini-PROTEAN II electrophoresis system (Bio-Rad, Herculus, Calif.) (41).Separated proteins were electrophoretically blotted onto Hybond™-C extramembranes (Amersham) using a Mini Trans-Blot electrophoretic transfercell (Bio-Rad, Herculus, Calif.) (42). Protein gels were stained using asilver staining kit according to the manufacturer's instructions(Bio-Rad, Herculus, Calif.). Following blocking for at least 2 hrs in 3%BSA in PBS, the membranes were probed for 2 hrs in room temperature withperoxidase-conjugated Bandereia simplicifolia isolectin B₄ (L-5391,Sigma) diluted to a concentration of 1 μg/ml in PBS, pH 6.8 containing0.2 mM CaCl₂. The membranes were washed 5 times with PBS, pH 6.8, andbound lectin was visualized by chemiluminescens using the ECL™ kitaccording to the instructions of the manufacturer (Amersham).

Quantification of PSGLb1/mIgG_(2b) by anti-mouse IgG Fc ELISA. Theconcentration of fusion protein in cell culture supernatants before andafter absorption was determined by a 96-well ELISA assay, in whichfusion proteins were captured with an affinity purified, polyclonal goatanti-mouse IgG Fc antibody (cat.nr. 55482, Cappel/Organon Teknika,Durham, N.C.). Following blocking with 3% BSA in PBS, the fusionproteins were captured and detected with a peroxidase-conjugated,affinity purified, polyclonal anti-mouse IgG Fc antibody (cat.nr. 55566,Organon Teknika, Durham, N.C.) using O-phenylenediamine dihydrochlorideas substrate (Sigma). The plate was read at 492 nm and the ELISAcalibrated using a dilution series of purified mouse IgG Fc fragments(cat.nr. 015-000-008, Jackson ImmunoResearch Labs., Inc., West Grove,Pa.) resuspended in AIM V serum-free medium.

Porcine aortic endothelial cell ELISA. PEC-A cells were seeded at adensity of 15000 cells/well in gelatin-coated 96-well plates (Nunclon,Denmark) and cultured for 48 hrs in AIM V serum-free medium. The platewas washed 5 times in 0.15M NaCl containing 0.02% Tween 20 and incubatedfor 1 hr in room temperature with 50 μl/well of purified human IgG, IgM,and IgA in PBS, starting at a concentration of 8, 1, and 2 mg/ml,respectively. The plate was washed again as above, and 50 μl of alkalinephosphatase-conjugated goat anti-human IgG (γ-chain specific; A3312,Sigma), IgM (μ-chain specific; A1067, Sigma) and IgA (α-chain specific;A3062, Sigma) F(ab)′₂ fragments diluted, 1:200 in PBS were added andincubated for 1 hr at room temperature. The plate was washed as above,incubated with the substrate p-nitrophenyl phosphate (Sigma 104-105),and read at 405 nm.

Porcine aortic endothelial cell cytotoxicity assay. PEC-A cells wereseeded and cultured in 96-well plates as described for the PEC-A ELISA.Following 48 hrs of culture, the cells were loaded for 1 hr at 37° C.with Na₂ ⁵¹CrO₄ (cat.nr. CJS4, Amersham), 1 μCi/well, and washed 3 timeswith AIM V medium. Fifty microliter of serially diluted, absorbed ornon-absorbed human AB serum or purified human IgG, IgA, or IgMantibodies were added together with 50 μl of rabbit serum (Cat. no.439665, Biotest AG, Dreieich, Germany) as a source of complement.Following 4 hrs incubation at 37° C. in a 5% CO₂ atmosphere, thesupernatants were harvested using a Skatron supernatant collectionsystem (Skatro Instruments, Norway) and analyzed in a γ-counter (1282Compugamma, LKB Wallac). Each serum and Ig sample were analyzed intriplicate. The percent killing was calculated as the measured minus thespontaneous release divided by the difference between the maximum andthe spontaneous release.

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Human PBMC wereisolated from fresh buffy coats prepared from healthy donors at theBlood bank of the South hospital, Stockholm. Six milliliter of buffycoat was mixed in a 50 ml polypropylene tube with 15 ml of PBScontaining 1 mg/ml BSA and 3.35 mg/ml EDTA. Following centrifugation at500×g for 10 minutes, the platelet rich supernatant was discarded, and 6ml of the lower phase was mixed with 6 ml of Hank's balanced saltsolution (HBSS), and underlayered with 6 ml of Lymphoprep™ (NycomedPharma AS). Following centrifugation (800×g, 20 min.), the interface wastransferred to a new tube, washed three times in HBSS, and resuspendedin serum-free AIM V medium. The final step in the effector cellpreparation was to transfer the PBMC to tissue culture flasks that wereincubated for 1 hr at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ to remove plastic-adherentcells. Target cells were K562 and Raji cells kept as described above, orPEC-A cells that had been trypsinized the day before the assay andsubsequently cultured in AIM V serum-free medium to prevent readhesionto the plastic surface. At the time for the assay the PEC-A cells werewashed off the bottom of the flask. Target cells were loaded with Na₂⁵ICrO₄, 100 μCi/1×10⁶ cells, for 1 hr at 37° C., washed 3 times in HBSSand resuspended in AIM V to a final concentration of 5×10⁴/ml. Fivethousand target cells were added to each well with effector cells in 200μl AIM V medium with and without 10% heat-inactivated, human AB serum atan effector (E):target (T) ratio ranging from 50:1 in two-fold dilutionsto 6.25:1.

Spontaneous release was read in wells with 5000 target cells incubatedin 200 μl AIM V medium without effector cells and maximum release wasread in wells where 5000 target cells in 100 μl AIM V were incubatedwith 100 μl 5% Triton X-100. Each E:T ratio was analyzed in triplicate.Following incubation at 37° C. for 4 hrs, the supernatants wereharvested using a Skatron supernatant collection system (SkatroInstruments, Norway) and analyzed in a γ-counter (LKB Wallac). Thepercent killing was calculated as the measured minus the spontaneousrelease divided by the difference between the maximum and thespontaneous release.

Results

Expression and characterization of the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein.Supernatants from COS-7 m6 cells transfected with the vector plasmidCDM8, the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) plasmid, or the, PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) together withthe porcine α1,3 GT plasmid, were collected approximately 7 days aftertransfection. Secreted mucin/Ig fusion proteins were purified byabsorption on anti-mouse IgG agarose beads and subjected to SDS-PAGE andWestern blotting using the Bandereia simplicifolia isolectin B₄ (BSAIB₄) for detection. As seen in FIG. 1, the fusion protein migrated underreducing conditions as a broad band with an apparent molecular weight of145 kDa that stained relatively poorly with silver. The heterogeneity insize, approximately 125 to 165 kDa, and poor stainability is inconcordance with previous observations with respect to the behavior ofhighly glycosylated, mucin-type proteins (43, 44). The fusion protein ismost likely produced as a homodimer because SDS-PAGE under non-reducingconditions revealed a double-band of an apparent molecular weight ofmore than 250 kDa. The amounts of fusion protein affinity-purified fromthe two supernatants derived from the same number of COS cellstransfected with the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) plasmid alone or together with theα1,3GT plasmid, respectively, were similar. Probing the electroblottedmembranes with BSA IB₄ revealed strong staining of the fusion proteinobtained following cotransfection with the porcine α1,3 GT (FIG. 1). Itis clear, though, that the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein produced inCOS-7 m6 cells without cotransfection of the α1,3 GT cDNA also exhibitedweak staining with the BSA IB₄ lectin, in spite of the fact that COScells are derived from the Simian monkey—an old world monkey lackingα1,3 GT activity. This indicates that the BSA IB₄ lectin has a slightlybroader specificity than just Galα1,3Gal epitopes (45). Nevertheless,cotransfection of the porcine α1,3GT cDNA supported the expression of ahighly Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein.

Quantification of PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) chimeras in supernatants oftransfected COS cells, and on goat anti-mouse IgG agarose beadsfollowing absorption. A sandwich ELISA was employed to quantify theamount of PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) in the supernatants of transfected COS cells.Typically, 5 culture flasks (260 ml flasks, Nunclon™) with COS cells at70% confluence were transfected and incubated as described in materialsand methods. Following an incubation period of 7 days in 10 ml of AIM Vmedium per flask, the medium was collected. The concentration of fusionprotein in the supernatant from such a transfection, as well as indifferent volumes of supernatant following absorption on 100 μl gelslurry of anti-mouse IgG agarose beads (corresponding to 50 μl packedbeads) was determined by an ELISA calibrated with purified mouse IgG Fcfragments (FIG. 2). The concentration of PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) in thesupernatants ranged from 150 to 200 ng/μl, and in this particularexperiment it was approximately 160 ng/μl (FIG. 2 A, the non-absorbedcolumn). The concentration of PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) remaining in 2, 4 and 8 mlof supernatant following absorption on 50 μI packed anti-mouse IgGagarose beads was 32, 89 and 117 ng/μl, respectively. This correspondsto 260, 290 and 360 ng of PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) being absorbed onto 50 μlpacked anti-mouse IgG agarose beads from 2, 4 and 8 ml of supernatant,respectively. Western blot analysis with the B. simplicifolia IB₄ lectinrevealed that 50 μl of packed beads could absorb out the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b)fusion protein from 1 ml supernatant to below detectability and from 2ml to barely detectable levels (not shown).

The absorption capacity of immobilized, Galα1,3Gal-substitutedPSGL1/mIgG_(2b). Twenty ml of supernatant from COS cells transfectedwith the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) plasmid alone or together with the porcineα1,3GT cDNA, were mixed with 500 μl gel slurry of anti-mouse IgG agarosebeads each. Following extensive washing the beads were aliquoted suchthat 100 μl of gel slurry (50 μl packed beads) were mixed with 0.25,0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 ml of pooled, complement-depleted, human AB serum,and rolled head over tail at 4° C. for 4 hrs. Following absorption onPSGL1/mIgG_(2b) and Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b), the serumwas assayed for porcine endothelial cell cytotoxicity in the presence ofrabbit complement using a 4 hr ⁵¹Cr release assay (FIG. 3). As shown inFIG. 3, 100 μl of beads carrying approximately 300 ng ofPSGL1/mIgG_(2b)(see above) can reduce the cytotoxicity of 4 and 2 ml ABserum in each dilution step, and completely absorb the cytotoxicitypresent in 1 ml and less of human AB serum. Note that the same amount ofnon-Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) reduces the cytotoxicity of0.25 ml absorbed human AB serum only slightly (FIG. 3).

The effect of Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) oncomplement-dependent porcine endothelial cell cytotoxicity and binding.To investigate the efficiency with which PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) could absorbindividual human immunoglobulin classes, human IgG, IgM and IgA werepurified from human AB serum by immuno-affinity chromatography onanti-human IgG, IgM and IgA agarose beads. Following its isolation IgAwas passed through anti-IgG and IgM columns to remove traces of IgG andIgM. This procedure was performed for the other Ig classes as well. Igfraction purity was checked by SDS-PAGE (FIG. 4). In concentrationsfound in normal serum, human IgG and IgM, but not IgA, were cytotoxicfor PEC-A in the presence of rabbit complement (FIG. 5). Thecytotoxicity residing in the IgG and IgM fractions was completelyremoved by absorption on Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b). Toinvestigate whether the lack of cytotoxicity exhibited by the IgAfraction was due to a lack of binding of human IgA antibodies to PEC-A,a cell ELISA was run with the same Ig fractions that was used in thecytotoxicity assay in order to detect bound IgG, IgM and IgA. Alkalinephosphatase-conjugated, class specific F(ab)′₂ fragments were used assecondary antibodies. Even though the cytotoxicity of IgG and IgM wascompletely removed by absorption on Galα1,3Gal-substitutedPSGL1/mIgG_(2b), the binding was never reduced with more than 70%(ranging from 30 to 70%) for IgG, and never with more than 55% (rangingfrom 10 to 55%) for IgM (FIG. 5). Human IgA clearly bound to PEC-A, andthe binding was only slightly reduced (not more than 29%) followingabsorption on Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b). The lack ofcytototoxicity of the IgA fraction could therefore not be explained byan inability of the IgA fraction to bind PEC-A, but may be due to aninability to activate complement.

The effect of Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) on ADCC of porcineendothelial cells. Several assays have been performed under serum-freeconditions where PEC-A have had an intermediate sensitivity to directkilling by freshly isolated PBMC when compared to K562 and Raji cells;K562 being sensitive and Raji non-sensitive to killing by human NK cells(FIG. 6 A). In the presence of 10% human, complement-inactivated ABserum, the killing rate was almost doubled supporting an ADCC effect invitro (FIG. 6 B) in agreement with previously published data (30).However, if the serum is absorbed with the Galα1,3Gal-substitutedPSGL1/mIgG_(2b) under conditions known to remove all PEC-A cytotoxicantibodies (se above), the killing rate decreases to levels slightlylower than those seen under serum-free conditions. On the other hand,the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein itself without Galα1,3Gal epitopescould not absorb out what caused the increased killing rate in thepresence of human AB serum (FIG. 6 B). These data support the notionthat anti-pig antibodies with Galα1,3Gal specificity can support anantibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro, and that theGalα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) fusion protein can effectivelyremove these antibodies just as it effectively removes thecomplement-fixing cytotoxic anti-pig antibodies.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Six percent SDS-PAGE of proteins isolated from supernatants ofCOS cells transfected with vector alone (CDM8), PSGL1/mIgG_(2b), orPSGL1/mIgG_(2b) and porcine α1,3GT expression plasmids. Anti-mouse IgGagarose beads were used for immunoaffinity purification of fusionproteins. Following extensive washing, the beads were boiled in samplebuffer under reducing and non-reducing conditions to release absorbedproteins. Gels run in parallel were either silver stained, or used forelectrophoretic transfer of separated proteins onto nitrocellulosemembranes. These were subsequently probed with peroxidase-conjugatedBandeireia simplicifolia isolectin B₄ lectin and visualized bychemiluminescens to detect Galα1,3Gal epitopes on immunopurifiedproteins. The gel migration length of molecular weight proteins of 220,97 and 66 kDa is indicated on the left handside.

FIG. 2. Quantification by anti-mouse IgG Fc ELISA of the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b)fusion protein concentration in increasing volumes of transfected COScell supernatants before and after absorption on 50 μl of anti-mouse IgGagarose beads. Triplicate samples were analyzed.

FIG. 3. Antibody-dependent, complement-mediated PEC-A cell cytotoxicityby different volumes of human AB serum following absorption on 50 μl ofanti-mouse IgG agarose beads carrying approximately 300 ng ofGalα1,3Gal- or non-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) as estimated in a⁵¹Cr-release assay.

FIG. 4. Ten percent SDS-PAGE of immunoaffinity purified human IgG, IgM,and IgA. Four micrograms of each sample were run under reducing andnon-reducing conditions, and proteins were visualized by silverstaining. The gel migration length of molecular weight proteins of 220,97, 66, 46 and 30 kDa is indicated on the left handside.

FIG. 5. The antibody-dependent, complement-mediated PEC-A cellcytotoxicity of immunoaffinity purified human IgG, IgM and IgA beforeand after absorption on Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) wasinvestigated by ⁵¹Cr-release assays (right handside Y-axis; % killing).The PEC-A cell binding of immunoaffinity purified IgG, IgM and IgAbefore and after absorption on Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b)was estimated in a cell ELISA (left handside Y-axis; O.D. at 405 nm).The two assays were run in parallel on absorbed and non-absorbed Igfractions. The concentration of the different Ig classes were chosen tobe approximately half maximum of what is normally found in human serum.

FIG. 6. The direct cytotoxic effect (serum-free conditions) of humanPBMC on K562, Raji and PEC-A cells, and the potentiating effect onkilling by the addition of heat-inactivated, human AB serum, wasinvestigated in a 4 hr ⁵¹Cr-release assay (graph A). The effect ofheat-inactivated, human AB serum on antibody-dependent cellularcytotoxicity of PEC-A cells was studied in a 4 hr ⁵¹Cr-release assaybefore and after absorption on Galα1,3Gal- and non-substitutedPSGL1/mIgG_(2b), respectively (graph B).

DISCUSSION

Three major avenues of research have been followed in order to developstrategies to prevent HAR. Methods (i) to remove or neutralize anti-pigantibodies, (ii) to interfere with complement activation, and (iii) toremove or modify Galα1,3Gal determinants, have been tested in assays invitro, in ex vivo organ perfusions and in pig to primatetransplantations.

Pretransplant pig organ perfusion (46), plasmapheresis (13, 14, 20),immunoabsorption (13, 14, 17), and absorption on synthetically madeGalα1,3Gal-containing oligosaccharides coupled to a solid phase (22)have been used to remove anti-pig antibodies. Recently, oligosaccharidesderived from pig gastric mucin were shown to efficiently removeanti-Galα1,3Gal-specific antibodies and thereby anti-pig cytotoxicity(24). Injection of free saccharides to block anti-pig antibodies in thecirculation is an alternative route used to prevent HAR. Intravenouscarbohydrate therapy was used successfully in an ABO incompatible,heterotopic cardiac allograft model in the baboon (47) and in neonateswith ABO hemolytic disease (48). No deleterious effects were noticed inrecipient baboons upon injection of free blood group trisaccharides atrates corresponding to 500 mg/hr following a bolus injection of 4 g ofthe trisaccharide (47). Free Galα1,3Gal-containing saccharides have beenused in vitro to neutralize anti-pig antibodies (23), but syntheticGalα1,3Gal-containing oligosaccharides in sufficient quantities for usein pig to primate xenotransplantation models are not yet available.However, high concentrations of melibiose (Gala 1,6Glc) orarabinogalactan, a naturally occurring plant polysaccharide containingnon-reducing α-D-galactose, have been used to prevent the toxic effectof baboon serum on porcine PK15 cells in vitro and to prolong pigcardiac xenograft survival in transplanted baboons (49). Lethal toxiceffects of the carbohydrate were observed in this study (49). Peptidesmimicking the Galα1,3Gal structure (50, 51) and murine monoclonalanti-idiotypic antibodies directed against common idiotopes on naturallyoccurring human anti-pig antibodies (52), are new reagents that may beused to absorb or block anti-pig antibodies. In addition, anti-chainantibodies have been used in a guinea pig to rat xenotransplantationmodel to deplete xenoreactive IgM antibodies in vivo (15, 16)—a strategythat warrants further investigation in the pig to primate combination.

Cobra venom factor (20) and soluble complement receptor type 1 (21) havebeen used to perturb complement activation and thereby to prolongxenograft survival in pig to non-human primate transplantations.Transgenic pigs have been made in which cDNAs encoding human sequencesof the species-restricted complement-regulatory proteins, CD55 and CD59,are expressed in porcine endothelium (53-55). Organs from transgenicpigs have been shown to be less prone to HAR following organ perfusionwith human blood or transplantation into non-human primates (56-59).

The most recent approach to prevent HAR involves modulating theexpression of Galα1,3Gal epitopes on porcine endothelium. Sandrin andMcKenzie suggested and proved that the expression of aglycosyltransferase, such as an α1,2 FT, competing with the endogenousα1,3 galactosyltransferase for the same precursor carbohydrate preventedexpression of Galα1,3Gal epitopes upon transfection into porcine LLC-PK1cells (26). As a result these cells became less sensitive toantibody-mediated, complement-dependent lysis (26). Recently, twoindependent groups have reported the making of transgenic pigsexpressing this blood group H α1,2 FT, but no data have been reported onthe sensitivity of the endothelium derived from these pigs toantibody-mediated cytotoxicity (27, 28).

We describe the construction and production of a novel, efficientabsorber that can be produced cheaply, in large quantities, and whichcan be easily coupled to a solid phase facilitating extracorporealimmunoabsorption of human blood to remove anti-pig antibodies before pigorgan xenografting. To make possible the production of a highlyglycosylated, recombinant protein carrying large amounts of Galα1,3Galepitopes (FIG. 1), we made a chimeric protein by fusing the cDNAencoding the extracellular part of a membrane-anchored mucin, PSGL-1(40), with the Fc part of mouse IgG, and coexpressed this with porcineα1,3 GT. Mucins are the main constituents of mucus, which is the gelcovering all mucous membranes. The physical characteristics of mucinsare due to their high content of O-linked carbohydrates (usually morethan 60% of the MW). Several cell membrane-anchored proteins containingmucin-type domains have been characterized: CD34, CD43, GlyCAM-1,PSGL-1, MAdCAM, CD96, CD45, and RBC glycophorins among others (43, 44).This group of proteins has received a lot of attention since many ofthem have been shown to carry the carbohydrate ligands of the selectinfamily of adhesion molecules; CD34, MAdCAM and GlyCAM-1 carry thecarbohydrate epitope recognized by L-selectin and PSGL-1 carriesepitopes recognized by both E- and P-selectin (60). Two reasons made uschoose the PSGL-1 extracellular part as a fusion partner. First, it hasone of the longest mucin-domains known in this family of proteins andmay therefore be expected to carry most O-linked carbohydrates (44, 60).Second, PSGL-1 is not only a functional ligand for E-selectin, but isthe hitherto only identified protein scaffold known to presentsiatyl-Le^(x) to P-selectin (61). So, if one were to make a fusionprotein expressing sialyl-Le^(x) in order to inhibit P- andE-selectin-mediated adhesion, this should contain the PSGL-1extracellular part. We are currently investigating the possibility ofmaking a fusion protein expressing both Galα1,3Gal and sialyl-Le^(x)thereby exhibiting the characteristics of a dual inhibitor; one partneutralizing anti-pig antibodies and the other preventing E- andP-select-independent rolling which may be a prerequisite for leukocyteextravasation in xenograft rejection.

In a xenotransplantation situation, where pig organs for transplantationwould be readily available, the recipient could be prepared byextracorporeal immunoabsorption to remove anti-pig antibodies therebypreventing HAR. Alternative strategies could be chosen (se above), but aspecific removal of anti-pig antibodies would leave the patient in amore favourable state with regard to the humoral immunity as compared toplasmapheresis and protein A absorption. Therefore, immunoabsorptionmedia containing the epitopes recognized by the anti-pig antibodiesthemselves would be ideal. The production of Galα1,31 Gal-containing di-and trisaccharides is laborious and costly, although a combination oforganic and enzymatic synthesis have simplified the procedure and madeit more cheap (34). Furthermore, it is not unlikely to expect thespecificity of the human anti-pig antibody repertoire to be broader thanjust the Galα3Galβ4GlcNAc epitope; i.e. recognition may be modulated bythe core saccharide chain, neighbouring branching points andmonosaccharides, as well as modifications such as sulfation. In thiscontext it would be better to use a glycosylated, recombinantglycoprotein modified through the action of the porcine α1,3 GT itselfresulting in a more natural array of Galα1,3Gal-containing structures.Three hundred ng of our fusion protein could completely remove the pigendothelial cell cytotoxic antibodies from 1 ml of human AB serum (FIG.3), which should be compared to other studies where 1 g ofoligosaccharide linked to a solid-phase was used to absorb 3 ml of humanAB serum (23). However, direct comparisons are needed to state adifference in absorption capability. The fusion protein is most likelyefficient due to a polyvalent expression of Galα1,3 Gal-containingdeterminants and a possible expression of the epitope in a variety ofstructural contexts facilitating the absorption of a broader spectrum ofthe human anti-pig repertoire. Recent, studies with pig gastricmucin-derived oligosaccharides indicate that polyvalency is importantfor absorption effectiveness (24).

Human IgG, IgM and IgA were purified from pooled human AB serum (FIG. 4)in order to investigate their binding to, and cytotoxicity for, porcineaortic endothelial cells, and to evaluate the Ig class-specificabsorption efficacy of the fusion protein (FIG. 5). The PAECcytotoxicity of human IgG at 8 mg/ml and IgM at 1 mg/ml was completelyremoved by Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b). However, the bindingwas not completely abolished as estimated in a PAEC ELISA using aliquotsof the same antibody preparations as in the cytotoxicity assay. Whetherthis represents residual IgG and IgM binding to epitopes other thanGalα1,3Gal on PAEC—epitopes which are not able to induce anantibody-mediated cytotoxic effect, Fc receptor binding, or just anon-specific, non-functional binding, is not known at present. In ourhands, purified IgA was not cytotoxic to PAEC although it clearly boundthese cells (FIG. 5). This is in contrast with a previous study bySchaapherder et al, who demonstrated cytotoxicity by dimeric human IgAvia the alternative pathway of complement activation (62). However, theyused serum from human agammaglobulinemic donors as complement source,whereas we used rabbit serum (62). Furthermore, we saw no clear evidenceof dimeric IgA in our IgA preparations (FIG. 4). In any case, IgAclearly binds PAEC and may be involved in pig xenograft rejectionthrough other effector mechanisms mediated by, for instance, Fc receptorbinding on macrophages and neutrophils (63, 64). This emphasizes theimportance of using absorbers that remove all anti-pig Ig classes,something which protein A and anti-μ chain antibody absorptions do not.

Although anti-pig antibodies to a large extent rely on complementactivation for full cytotoxic effect, there are additional effectormechanisms involving antibodies that may cause pig endothelial cellcytotoxicity. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity is such amechanism where anti-pig antibodies with Galα1,3Gal specificity areimportant for cytotoxicity even in the absence of complement (30).Therefore, we examined how absorbed and non-absorbed human AB serumcontributed to PAEC cytotoxicity by human PBMC (FIG. 6). As shown inFIG. 6 human complement-depleted AB serum increased PEC-A cytotoxicityclose to more than 10% in 3 out of 4 effector to target ratios. Thisincreased cytotoxicity contributed by human AB serum was completelyremoved by absorption on Galα1,3Gal-substituted PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) whereasabsorption on PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) without Galα1,3Gal had no effect. Thisclearly demonstrates that Galα1,3Gal-specific antibodies not onlycontribute to ADCC against porcine endothelial cells, but areresponsible for all of the enhanced cytotoxic effect seen upon additionof human AB serum to a human PBMC/PAEC mixed culture. If this ADCCeffect is present also in vivo, strategies aiming at inhibitingcomplement activation may not be sufficient to prevent acute pigxenograft rejection.

We have presented the construction and production of a new and effectiveGalα1,3Gal-substituted, mucin domain-containing absorber that can beused in a pretransplant extracorporeal immunoabsorption setting toremove anti-pig antibodies involved in antibody-dependent, complement-as well as cell-mediated cytotoxicity of pig endothelial cells. Bystably transfecting cells to express the PSGL1/mIgG_(2b) and porcineα1,3GT cDNAs, large amounts of fusion protein can be produced at lowcosts for testing in pig to primate xenotransplantation models.

REFERENCES

-   1. Dorling A., Lechler R. I. Prospects for xenografting. Curr. Opin.    Immunol. 1994; 6 (5): 765-9.-   2. Ye Y., Niekrasz M., Kosanke S., et al. The pig as a potential    organ donor for man. A study of potentially transferable disease    from donor pig to recipient man. Transplantation 1994; 57 (5):    694-703.-   3. Michaels M. G., Simmons R. L. Xenotransplant-associated zoonoses.    Strategies for prevention. Transplantation 1994; 57 (1): 1-7.-   4. Caine R. Y. Organ transplantation between widely disparate    species. Transplant. Proc. 1970; 2 (4): 550-6.-   5. Bach F. H., Robson S. C., Ferran C., et al. Endothelial cell    activation and thromboregulation during xerfograft rejection.    Immunol. Rev. 1994; 141: 5-30.-   6. Magee J. C., Platt J. L. Xenograft rejection-molecular mechanisms    and therapeutic implications. Therap. Immunol. 1994; 1 (1): 45-58.-   7. Platt J. L., Lindman B. J., Chen H., Spitalnik S. L., Bach F. H.    Endothelial cell antigens recognized by xenoreactive human natural    antibodies. Transplantation 1990; 50 (5): 817-22.-   8. Good A. H., Cooper D. K., Malcolm A. J., et al. Identification of    carbohydrate structures that bind human antiporcine antibodies:    implications for discordant xenografting in humans. Transplant.    Proc. 1992; 24 (2): 559-62.-   9. Holgersson J., Cairns T. D., Karlsson E. C., et al. Carbohydrate    specificity of human immunoglobulin-M antibodies with pig    lymphocytotoxic activity. Transplant. Proc. 1992; 24 (2): 605-8.-   10. Oriol R., Ye Y., Koren E., Cooper D. K. Carbohydrate antigens of    pig tissues reacting with human natural antibodies as potential    targets for hyperacute vascular rejection in pig-to-man organ    xenotransplantation. Transplantation 1993; 56 (6): 1433-42.-   11. Galili U. Interaction of the natural anti-Gal antibody with    alphagalactosyl epitopes: a major obstacle for xenotransplantation    in humans. Immunol. Today 1993; 14 (10): 480-2.-   12. Sandrin M. S., Vaughan H. A., Dabkowski P. L., McKenzie I. F.    Anti-pig IgM antibodies in human serum react predominantly with    Gal(alpha 1-3)Gal epitopes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1993; 90    (23): 11391-5.-   13. Cairns T. D., Taube D. H., Stevens N., Binns R., Welsh K. I.    Xenografts future prospects for clinical transplantation. Immunol.    Lett. 1991; 29 (1-2): 167-70.-   14. Rydberg L., Hallberg E., Björck S., et al. Studies on the    removal of anti-pig xenoantibodies in the human by    plasmapheresis/immunoadsorption. Xenotransplantation 1995; 2:    253-263.-   15. Soares M. P., Latinne D., Elsen M., Figueroa J., Bach F. H.,    Bazin H. In vivo depletion of xenoreactive natural antibodies with    an anti-mu monoclonal antibody. Transplantation 1993; 56 (6):    1427-33.-   16. Soares M., Lu X., Havaux X., et al. In vivo IgM depletion by    anti-mu monoclonal antibody therapy. The role of IgM in hyperacute    vascular rejection of discordant xenografts. Transplantation 1994;    57 (7): 1003-9.-   17. Leventhal J. R., John R., Fryer J. P., et al. Removal of baboon    and human antiporcine IgG and IgM natural antibodies by    immunoadsorption. Results of in vitro and in vivo studies.    Transplantation 1995; 59 (2): 294-300.-   18. Geller R. L., Bach F. H., Turman M. A., Casali P., Platt J. L.    Evidence that polyreactive antibodies are deposited in rejected    discordant xenografts. Transplantation 1993; 55 (1): 168-72.-   19. Koren E., Milotic F., Neethling F. A., et al. Murine monoclonal    anti-idiotypic antibodies directed against human anti-alpha Gal    antibodies prevent rejection of pig cells in culture: implications    for pig-to-human organ xenotransplantation. Transplant. Proc. 1996;    28 (2): 559.-   20. Leventhal J. R., Sakiyalak P., Witson J., et al. The synergistic    effect of combined antibody and complement depletion on discordant    cardiac xenograft survival in nonhuman primates. Transplantation    1994; 57: 974-978.-   21. Pruitt S. K., Kirk A. D., Bollinger R. R., et al. The effect of    soluble complement receptor type 1 on hyperacute rejection of    porcine xenografts. Transplantation 1994; 57 (3): 363-70.-   22. Neethling F. A., Koren E., Oriol R., et al. Immunoadsorption of    natural antibodies from human serum by affinity chromatography using    specific carbohydrates protects pig cells from cytotoxic    destruction. Transplant. Proc. 1994; 26 (3): 1378.-   23. Neethling F. A., Koren E., Ye Y., et al. Protection of pig    kidney (PK 15) cells from the cytotoxic effect of anti-pig    antibodies by alpha-galactosyl oligosaccharides. Transplantation    1994; 57 (6): 959-63.-   24. Li S., Yeh J-C., Cooper D. K. C., Cummings R. D. Inhibition of    human anti-αGal IgG by oligosaccharides derived from porcine stomach    mucin. Xenotransplantation 1995; 2: 279-288.-   25. Cooper D. K., Good A. H., Ye Y., et al. Specific intravenous    carbohydrate therapy: a new approach to the inhibition of    antibody-mediated rejection following ABO-incompatible allografting    and discordant xenografting. Transplant. Proc. 1993; 25 (1 Pt 1):    377-8.-   26. Sandrin M. S., Fodor W. L., Mouhtouris E., et al. Enzymatic    remodelling of the carbohydrate surface of a xenogenic cell    substantially reduces human antibody binding and complement-mediated    cytolysis. Nature Med. 1995; 1 (12): 1261-7.-   27. Sharma A., Okabe J., Birch P., et al. Reduction in the level of    Gal(alpha1,3)Gal in transgenic mice and pigs by the expression of an    alpha(1,2)fucosyltransferase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1996; 93    (14): 7190-5.-   28. Koike C., Kannagi R., Takuma Y., et al. Introduction of    α(1,2)fucosyltransferase and its effect on α-Gal epitopes in    transgenic pig. Xenotransplantation 1996; 3: 81-86.-   29. Blakely M. L., Van der Werf W. J., Berndt M. C., Dalmasso A. P.,    Bach F. H., Hancock W. W. Activation of intragraft endothelial and    mononuclear cells during discordant xenograft rejection.    Transplantation 1994; 58 (10): 1059-66.-   30. Seebach J. D., Yamada K., McMorrom, I. M., Sachs D. H.,    DerSimonian H. D. Xenogeneic human anti-pig cytotoxicity mediated by    activated natural killer cells. Xenotransplantation 1996; 3:    188-197.-   31. Chou D. K., Dodd J., Jessell T. M., Costello C. E.,    Jungalwala F. B. Identification of alpha-galactose    (alpha-fucose)-asialo-GM1 glycolipid expressed by subsets of rat    dorsal root ganglion neurons. J. Biol. Chem. 1989; 264 (6): 3409-15.-   32. Fujiwara S., Shinkai H., Deutzmann R., Paulsson M., Timpl R.    Structure and distribution of N-linked oligosaccharide chains on    various domains of mouse tumour laminin. Biochem. J. 1988; 252 (2):    453-61.-   33. Dasgupta S., Hogan E. L., Glushka J., van Halbeek H. Branched    monosialo gangliosides of the lacto-series isolated from bovine    erythrocytes: characterization of a novel ganglioside,    NeuGc-isooctaosylceramide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1994; 310 (2):    373-84.-   34. Wong C. H. Enzymatic and Chemo-Enzymatic Synthesis Of    Carbohydrates. Pure Appl. Chem. 1995; 67 (10): 1609-1616.-   35. Seed B. An LFA-3 cDNA encodes a phospholipid-linked membrane    protein homologous to its receptor CD2. Nature 1987; 329 (6142):    840-2.-   36. Khodadoust M. M., Candal F. J., Maher S. E., et al. PEC-A: An    immortalized porcine aortic endothelial cell. Xenotransplantation    1995; 2: 79-87.-   37. Dabkowski P. L., Vaughan H. A., McKenzie I. F., Sandrin M. S.    Characterisation of a cDNA clone encoding the pig alpha 1,3    galactosyltransferase: implications for xenotransplantation.    Transplant. Proc. 1993; 25 (5): 2921.-   38. Dabkowski P. L., Vaughan H. A., McKenzie I. F., Sandrin M. S.    Isolation of a CDNA clone encoding the pig alpha 1,3    galactosyltransferase. Transplant. Proc. 1994; 26 (3): 1335.-   39. Gustafsson K., Strahan K., Preece A. Alpha    1,3galactosyltransferase: a target for in vivo genetic manipulation    in xenotransplantation. Immunol. Rev. 1994; 141: 59-70.-   40. Sako D., Chang X. J., Barone K. M., et al. Expression cloning of    a functional glycoprotein ligand for P-selectin. Cell 1993; 75 (6):    1179-86.-   41. Laemmli U. K. Cleavage of structural proteins during the    assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature 1970; 227 (259):    680-5.-   42. Towbin H., Staehelin T., Gordon J. Electrophoretic transfer of    proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets:    procedure and some applications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 1979;    76 (9): 4350-4.-   43. Carraway K. L., Hull S. R. Cell surface mucin-type glycoproteins    and mucin-like domains. Glycobiology 1991; 1 (2): 131-8.-   44. Shimizu Y., Shaw S. Mucins in the mainstream. Nature 1993; 366:    630-631.-   45. Galili U., Macher B. A., Buehler J., Shohet S. B. Human natural    anti-α-galactosyl IgG. II. The specific recognition of α(1-3)-linked    galactose residues. J. Exp. Med. 1985; 162: 573-582.-   46. Platt J. L., Fischel R. J., Matas A. J., Reif S. A., Bolman R.    M., Bach F. H. Immunopathology of hyperacute xenograft rejection in    a swine-to-primate model. Transplantation 1991; 52 (2): 214-20.-   47. Cooper D. K., Ye Y., Niekrasz M., et al. Specific intravenous    carbohydrate therapy. A new concept in inhibiting antibody-mediated    rejection—experience with ABO-incompatible cardiac allografting in    the baboon. Transplantation 1993; 56 (4): 769-77.-   48. Romano E. L., Soyano A., Linares J. Preliminary human study of    synthetic trisaccharide representing blood substance A. Transplant.    Proc. 1987; 19 (6): 4475-8.-   49. Ye Y., Neethling F. A., Niekrasz M., et al. Evidence that    intravenously administered alpha-galactosyl carbohydrates reduce    baboon serum cytotoxicity to pig kidney cells (PK15) and    transplanted pig hearts. Transplantation 1994; 58 (3): 330-7.-   50. Vaughan H. A., Oldenburg K. R., Gallop M. A., Atkin J. D.,    McKenzie I. F. C., Sandrin M. S. Recognition of an octapeptide    sequence by multiple Gala(1,3)Gal-binding proteins.    Xenotransplantation 1996; 3: 18-23.-   51. Kooyman D. L., McClellan S. B., Parker W., et al. Identification    and characterization of a galactosyl peptide mimetic. Implications    for use in removing xeno-reactive anti-α Gal antibodies.    Transplantation 1996; 61 (6): 851-5.-   52. Koren E., Milotic F., Neethling F. A., et al. Monoclonal    antiidiotypic antibodies neutralize cytotoxic effects of anti-αGal    antibodies. Transplantation 1996; 62: 837-843.-   53. Fodor W. L., Williams B. L., Matis L. A., et al. Expression of a    functional human complement inhibitor in a transgenic pig as a model    for the prevention of xenogeneic hyperacute organ rejection. Proc.    Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1994; 91 (23): 11153-7.-   54. Rosengard A. M., Cary N. R., Langford G. A., Tucker A. W.,    Wallwork J., White D. J. Tissue expression of human complement    inhibitor, decay-accelerating factor, in transgenic pigs. A    potential approach for preventing xenograft rejection.    Transplantation 1995; 59 (9): 1325-33.-   55. Diamond L. E., McCurry K. R., Martin M. J., et al.    Characterization of transgenic pigs expressing functionally active    human CD59 on cardiac endothelium. Transplantation 1996; 61 (8):    1241-9.-   56. Kroshus T. J., Bolman R. M., III, Dalmasso A. P., et al.    Expression of human CD59 in transgenic pig organs enhances organ    survival in an ex vivo xenogeneic perfusion model. Transplantation    1996; 61 (10): 1513-21.-   57. Pascher A., Poehlein C. H., Storck M., et al. Human decay    accelerating factor expressed on endothelial cells of transgenic    pigs affects complement activation in an ex vivo liver perfusion    model. Transplant. Proc. 1996; 28 (2): 754-5.-   58. Tolan M. J., Friend P. J., Cozzi E., et al. Life-supporting    transgenic kidney transplants in a pig-to-primate model. XVI    International congress of the transplantation society. Barcelona,    1996: 102.-   59. Schmoeckel M., Nollert G., Shahmohammadi M., et al. Prevention    of hyperacute rejection by human decay accelerating factor in    xenogeneic perfused working hearts. Transplantation 1996; 62 (6):    729-734.-   60. Rosen S. D., Bertozzi C. R. Leukocyte adhesion: Two selectins    converge on sulphate. Curr. Biol. 1996; 6 (3): 261-264.-   61. Asa D., Raycroft L., Ma L., et al. The P-Selectin Glycoprotein    Ligand Functions As a Common Human Leukocyte Ligand For P— and    E-Selectins. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270 (19): 11662-11670.-   62. Schaapherder A. F., Gooszen H. G., te Bulte M. T., Daha M. R.    Human complement activation via the alternative pathway on porcine    endothelium initiated by IgA antibodies. Transplantation 1995; 60    (3): 287-91.-   63. Gauldi J., Richards C., Lamontagne L. Fc receptors for IgA and    other immunoglobulins on resident and activated alveolar    macrophages. Mol. Immunol. 1983; 20: 1029-1037.-   64. Monteiro R. C., Kubagawa H., Cooper M. Cellular distribution,    regulation, and biochemical nature of an Fcα receptor in humans. J.    Exp. Med. 1990; 171: 597-613.

1. An absorber comprising a dimerized fusion polypeptide comprising afirst polypeptide operably linked to a second polypeptide, wherein thefirst polypeptide: (a) comprises the extracellular portion of aP-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1; and (b) is glycosylated by an α1,3galactosyltransferase; and the second polypeptide comprises animmunoglobulin Fc region.
 2. The absorber of claim 14, wherein thefusion polypeptide comprises multiple Galα1,3Gal epitopes.